Figure 5

Regulation of HIV-1 transcription in circulating monocytes. Transcription of HIV-1 in circulating monocytes is dependent on the ratio of activator to repressor isoforms of transcription factors, the phosphorylation state of transcription factors, and the inducible translocation of NF-κB and NFAT factors from the cytoplasm. NF-κB can be induced to translocate to the nucleus by TNFα-mediated phosphorylation of IκB. NFAT is dephosphorylated in the cytoplasm by calcineurin, which acts in response to calcium levels within the cell. Once it is dephosphorylated, it translocates to the nucleus where it activates transcription by constitutively binding the NF-κB site in the enhancer. Phosphorylation plays a critical role in regulating the activity of C/EBP factors in monocytes. Phosphorylation of C/EBPα by ras-dependent mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, signaled by IL-6 or by cAMP-dependent protein kinase A, results in its nuclear translocation and subsequent transactivation of the LTR. Cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) 9 specifically phosphorylates C/EBPβ, which then translocates into the nucleus, binds to the LTR, and leads to an increase in HIV-1 gene expression. Once in the nucleus, C/EBP factors then regulate the activity of AP-1 factors. Relatively high levels of C/EBPα dimerize with AP-1 factors to form potent activators of transcription. Lower levels of C/EBPβ balance this activation by binding AP-1 leading to a loss in DNA binding affinity. Sp1 and Sp3 are constitutively expressed in the nucleus. In the presence of Sp1, which is a strong activator, Sp3 competes for binding to the LTR and inhibits activation by Sp1.